In this book Amit Katwala traces the development of the polygraph machine, better known as a lie detector. The polygraph works by monitoring a person's blood pressure, respiration, pulse, and perspiration while the person is being asked a series of questions. Spikes in the above signs (supposedly) indicate the person is lying.
The polygraph is far from infallible, however, because false positives may result from the stress of being interrogated. Moreover, some people can 'beat the machine', so passing the lie detector test is not proof of truthfulness. Because of the unreliability of polygraph results, only SOME states allow their use in court, and these states require consent by both parties.
A modern polygraph machine
Three men were primarily responsible for the development of the modern polygraph machine: August Vollmer - the first police chief in Berkeley, California; John Larson - a Berkeley police officer with a Ph.D. in physiology; and Leonarde Keeler - an apprentice to Larson who went on to augment and commercialize the polygraph machine.
Police Chief August Vollmer
Police Officer John Larson
Leonarde Keeler
Berkeley Police Chief Vollmer wanted to dispense with the 'third degree' (beatings) to interrogate suspects, so he asked science-oriented Police Officer Larson to devise an apparatus to detect lies. Larson had read an article by William Marston, who used a blood pressure cuff to study links between vital signs and emotions. Marston tested the device on Harvard students and reported a 96 percent success rate in detecting liars.
William Marston testing his early version of the lie detector
Officer Larson took inspiration from Marston's work and, with the help of high school student Leonarde Keeler - who liked to hang around the police station - Larson put together a hodgepodge device called a cardio-pneumo-psychograph. This was the first official lie detector.
A man being questioned using the Cardio-Pneumo-Psychograph
The formal introduction of the cardio-pneumo-psychograph occurred in the spring of 1921, when a crime spree was reported in a girls' dormitory at the University of California, Berkeley. The occupants of the dorm reported their possessions - money, jewelry, clothing - were going missing, and residents pointed fingers at each other.
Police Chief Vollmer sent Officer Larson to use his cardio-pneumo-psychograph on the college girls, and a suspect called Helen Graham was identified. Intense questioning of Graham resulted in a confession, which Helen later recanted. Nevertheless, Vollmer and Larson considered the launch of the lie detector a success.
A young woman taking a polygraph test
The lie detector was used for a more serious case later that year. In August, 1921 a Catholic priest named Patrick Heslin, from Colma, California, was called away to give last rites.....and never returned. Two ransom notes were sent, with insufficient information about the drop site, and the Archbishop offered a reward for information about Heslin. Shortly afterwards, a baker called William Hightower told a reporter he might know the whereabouts of the priest.
William Hightower
Hightower led the journalist and the police to a spot on the beach, and seemed to know EXACTLY where to dig for Heslin, who had been shot twice. Hightower was arrested and Officer Larson used his cardio-pneumo-psychograph to question the suspect, who was deemed guilty. Police then found the murder weapon and the typewriter used for ransom notes in Hightower's room, and the baker was convicted of murder. Thus, another (presumable) success for the lie detector.
The next major public use of the lie detector was more problematical. In May 1922, Henry and Anna Wilkins were driving home to San Francisco with their two children when their car was forced to the side of the road. A gunman robbed the couple of three $100 bills and shot Anna. Circumstances suggested Henry hired the perpetrator and was complicit in Anna's murder, but Henry passed a polygraph test and was released by the police.
Henry Wilkins taking a lie detector test
Still, there was a great deal of evidence implicating Henry, including the fact that he was having an affair with his sister-in-law. Henry was tried twice but never convicted, and he seemed to have 'beat the machine.'
As the lie detector grew in popularity, the inventors were making it more compact and easier to use. Still, Officer Larson - who had pictured the polygraph being used for scientific studies - started having doubts about his invention, especially when it was used by untrained people who might misinterpret the results. Eventually, Larson regretted developing the lie detector, believing it was being widely misused.
For their part, Police Chief Vollmer and Leonarde Keeler, who went on to graduate from the University of California, strongly touted the polygraph.
Leonarde Keeler (left) and August Vollmer observing a lie detector test
Vollmer recommended the polygraph for use in police departments, and Leonarde advised its use everywhere, including businesses, banks, etc., to test the honesty of employees. Leonarde eventually patented the polygraph, and grew wealthy from its sales. All this led Larson to fall out with Vollmer and Keeler, and Larson took every opportunity to criticize his former partners.
One of the most dramatic uses of the lie detector occurred in 1936, in the case of Chicago drug dealer Joseph (Joe) Rappoport. Rappoport was accused of killing a man called Max Dent, who was going to testify against Rappoport in an uncoming trial. Rappoport was convicted of first degree murder and scheduled to be executed in the electric chair.
Electric Chair
Joe seemed to be a lucky guy, though, because his execution was postponed five times for appeals and religious holidays. When the execution was scheduled for the sixth time, Rappoport's sister begged Illinois Governor Henry Horner to commute Joe's sentence.....and Horner made the unprecedented decision to base his decision on the results of a polygraph test.
Leonarde Keeler administered the lie detector test to Rappoport in a kind of circus atmosphere, which is the exact opposite of the calm quiet environment recommeded by John Larson. Keeler found that Joe was guilty of murdering Max Dent, and the decision came to haunt Keeler for the rest of his life.
Leonarde Keeler
Though the results of polygraph tests have been repeatedly deemed unreliable, the machines are still widely used to screen government employees, question suspected criminals, investigate possible terrorists, and more. In addition, increasingly sophisticated methods of 'lie detection' are being devised, such as brain fingerprinting, Functional MRI brain scans, pupil dilation, guilty knowledge tests, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and more.
Brain Fingerprinting Test
Katwala does a deep dive into the lives of Vollmer, Larson, and Keeler, and writes a great deal about the development of polygraph machines. He also includes extensive chapters about the true crimes mentioned above, and refers to several others. I found the book informative and interesting and recommend it to readers interested in the subject.
I listened to the audiobook, narrated by Paul Belllantoni, who did a fine job.
Thanks to Netgalley, Amit Katwala, and Dreamscape Media for a copy of the book.
Rating: 4 stars
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